Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review

Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) comprises a range of conditions characterized by compression of the brachial plexus, subclavian artery, or subclavian vein as these structures traverse the thoracic outlet. Although TOS was first documented in 1860 by Willshire, it remains a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge - particularly for cardiologists evaluating upper-extremity ischemia, suspected arm emboli, or unexplained swelling. This article provides a cardiology-focused overview of TOS, emphasizing the condition's subtypes (neurogenic, venous, and arterial), key diagnostic approaches, comparative surgical outcomes, and considerations relevant to cardiovascular specialists. Literature pertaining to TOS pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, imaging, and surgical management was reviewed. Where available, quantitative outcome data and success rates are highlighted to guide evidence-based decision-making. TOS is commonly categorized into neurogenic, venous, and arterial forms. Each subtype necessitates a distinct approach. Developments in imaging (magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography angiography, and dynamic ultrasound) and refined surgical techniques have improved diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic success: yet questions remain regarding long-term efficacy and optimal procedural approaches. Prompt differentiation between TOS and intrinsic cardiac or major vascular etiologies is essential for preventing severe complications such as limb ischemia and permanent nerve damage. A multidisciplinary model integrating cardiologists, vascular surgeons, neurologists, and physical therapists offers the best outcomes. Further studies, particularly large-scale comparative trials, are needed to standardize diagnostic protocols and evaluate emerging surgical approaches.