Pleural effusions: Pathogenesis, radiologic evaluation, and therapy

The imaging of pleural effusions by plain radiography, sonography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has greatly facilitated the planning of both initial diagnostic thoracentesis and subsequent therapeutic management. The normal anatomy and physiology of the pleura, the pathogenesis of effusions, and the clinical criteria for classifying effusions are briefly summarized. The usefulness of each imaging modality is then discussed, particularly with regard to the problems of detecting small effusions, identifying loculation of fluid, distinguishing pleural from intraparenchymal disease, and assessing the extent to which a pleural process has become organized.