Multimodal Analgesia in Cardiothoracic Procedure: Opioid and Non‑opioid Pharmacology for Pain Management: Part 1

Pain in the context of cardiothoracic surgery can be attributed to multiple factors. Furthermore, cardiothoracic procedure‑related pain can be significant and can lead to multiple morbidities including chronic pain syndromes when left undertreated. Even though opioids remain mainstay of treatment for these procedures, opioid‑sparing techniques utilizing a well‑developed multimodal regimen can be important in the proper pain management of this patient population. It is imperative for the anesthesiologist to understand the multiple pharmacological and non‑pharmacological modalities available, the benefits and adverse effects, and the literature supporting the utility of these methods.