Intergenerational transfer of biological responses to trauma: Impact of psychosocial stress in fathers on offspring

Maternal experiences and psychological disposition prior to and during pregnancy are associated with specific biological and behavioral phenotypes in their children. Less clear, however, is the contribution of paternal experiences to offspring disposition. Increasingly, animal models indicate that paternal experiences are as impactful to offspring development as are maternal experiences. Importantly, these experiences in fathers can precipitate biological changes that are concomitant with biological effects observed in offspring. Here, we examine the body of evidence across species that suggests paternal environmental exposures are associated with specific phenotypes in offspring and note potential mechanisms for the "transmission" of intergenerational experience. Finally, we acknowledge the caveats endemic to this line of research and suggest points of consideration for the field.